THE PEOPLE
Brief profiles of the physicists whose work appears across the site.
§ 1st CENTURY · 1
§ 2nd CENTURY · 1
§ 3rd CENTURY · 1
§ 6th CENTURY · 1
§ 14th CENTURY · 1
§ 15th CENTURY · 1
§ 16th CENTURY · 6
Willebrord Snel van Royen
Leiden astronomer who derived the sine law of refraction in 1621 but never published; two centuries of French textbooks called it Descartes's law. Also pioneered geodetic triangulation — measured the Earth's radius across Holland from a chain of 33 triangles.
Galileo Galilei
Timed a swinging chandelier against his pulse and found the pendulum's secret.
Johannes Kepler
Gave up on circles after eight years and found that orbits are ellipses.
René Descartes
Philosopher who first proposed a conservation law for quantity of motion — nearly right, in need of a sign.
Simon Stevin
Flemish engineer who showed that fluid pressure depends only on depth, never on the shape of the container.
Tycho Brahe
Measured the sky by naked eye more accurately than anyone ever would again.
§ 17th CENTURY · 15
Evangelista Torricelli
Galileo's last student — invented the barometer, discovered atmospheric pressure, and wrote the first projectile tables.
Daniel Bernoulli
The Basel mathematician who insisted, against Euler's objections, that every vibration is a sum of sinusoids.
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
Dutch-German instrument maker who built the first precision mercury thermometer and the scale that bears his name.
Blaise Pascal
Showed that pressure in a confined fluid travels undiminished in every direction — and gave his name to the SI unit of pressure.
Brook Taylor
The Cambridge mathematician whose 1713 analysis of the vibrating string launched the whole theory of waves.
Christiaan Huygens
Built the first pendulum clock and turned a curiosity into a timekeeper.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
Philosopher-mathematician who coined vis viva — the first attempt at what we now call kinetic energy.
Guillaume Amontons
Deaf instrument-maker who distilled the chaos of friction into two clean laws.
Isaac Newton
Wrote three laws of motion and one of gravity, and explained almost everything.
John Wallis
English mathematician who got momentum conservation right, with the sign, in 1668.
Pierre Bouguer
Took pendulums up the Andes and measured how gravity changes with altitude.
Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis
Stated the first principle of least action in 1744 and led the Lapland expedition that proved Earth is an oblate spheroid.
Robert Boyle
Anglo-Irish natural philosopher who turned alchemy into chemistry and gave the first quantitative law of gases.
Robert Hooke
The Royal Society's polymath curator — springs, cells, and a bitter rivalry with Newton.
Pierre de Fermat
Toulouse magistrate and part-time mathematician who derived Snell's law from the principle of least time.
§ 18th CENTURY · 45
Hans Christian Ørsted
Danish physicist who founded electromagnetism by accident in an 1820 lecture demonstration when a current-carrying wire deflected a compass needle.
Félix Savart
French physician and physicist whose acoustical instruments became laboratory standards, and who collaborated with Biot on the magnetic-field-from-current-element law in 1820.
Sir Humphry Davy
British chemist who melted ice by friction to attack the caloric theory and discovered a host of chemical elements.
Joseph Black
Scottish chemist who discovered latent heat and specific heat capacity and founded quantitative calorimetry.
Pierre Louis Dulong
French chemist and physicist, co-discoverer of the Dulong–Petit law of molar heat capacities.
Alexis Thérèse Petit
French physicist who, with Dulong, found the law of molar heat capacities — and died at twenty-nine.
Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron
French engineer who gave Carnot's heat-engine theory its graphical form and whose name lives on in the Clausius–Clapeyron relation.
Sadi Carnot
French military engineer who founded thermodynamics in a single 1824 book on the motive power of fire, dying at 36 believing he had failed — his notebooks revealing he had already glimpsed the first law.
Jakob Steiner
Swiss geometer whose parallel-axis theorem lets moment of inertia be computed about any axis from the centre-of-mass value.
Adrien-Marie Legendre
Classified the integrals that no one could solve and gave them his name.
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
French physicist-chemist who quantified how gases expand and combine — and made daring balloon ascents to test the air.
Amedeo Avogadro
Italian physicist whose hypothesis that equal volumes hold equal numbers of molecules waited fifty years for acceptance.
Anders Celsius
Swedish astronomer who devised the centigrade temperature scale — originally inverted — that became the Celsius scale.
André-Marie Ampère
French mathematician and physicist who turned Ørsted's compass-needle observation into the full mathematical theory of electrodynamics in two months flat.
Augustin-Jean Fresnel
French civil engineer who argued wave theory to victory against Laplace's Newton faction at the French Academy, derived the Fresnel equations (1821–23), and designed the lighthouse lens. Died of tuberculosis at 39.
Benjamin Franklin
American printer, diplomat, and self-taught scientist who proved lightning was electricity and gave us the signs + and − that every circuit still uses.
Carl Friedrich Gauss
The 'prince of mathematicians' — directed the Göttingen Observatory for forty years and gave electromagnetism the divergence theorem that bears his name.
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
French military engineer who measured the inverse-square law of electric force and put electrostatics on a quantitative footing.
Claude-Louis Navier
Engineer who first wrote down the equations of viscous fluid flow.
Gabrielle Émilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, Marquise du Châtelet
Translated Newton into French and made the decisive experimental case for vis viva as m·v².
Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford
American-born adventurer whose cannon-boring experiment dealt the caloric theory its fatal blow.
David Brewster
Scottish physicist who discovered Brewster's angle (1815) by measurement across dozens of materials. Invented the kaleidoscope (lost the patent to London hawkers within months). Founded the BAAS; twice president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni
Drew a violin bow across a sand-sprinkled plate and watched the eigenmodes fall out.
Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis
French engineer who, in 1835, named the fictitious force that makes weather rotate and pendulums drift.
Georg Simon Ohm
Bavarian schoolteacher who in 1827 measured the linear relation V = IR between voltage, current, and resistance — and was rejected by the German physics establishment for being 'too mathematical.'
Giovanni Battista Venturi
Italian priest and natural philosopher who discovered that constricting a pipe speeds up its flow and drops its pressure.
Henry Cavendish
Weighed the Earth in his garden shed with a torsion balance and two lead balls.
Jacques Charles
French physicist and balloon pioneer whose unpublished law tied a gas's volume to its temperature.
James Watt
Engineer whose separate-condenser steam engine powered the industrial revolution and lent his name to the unit of power.
Jean-Baptiste Biot
French polymath who, with Félix Savart, derived the magnetic-field-from-current-element law in 1820 and later founded the modern study of optical activity.
Jean le Rond d'Alembert
The foundling who wrote down the wave equation at twenty-nine and solved it in the same paper.
Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille
Paris doctor who wanted to understand blood flow — and wrote down the governing law of viscous pipe flow in the process.
Johann Gottlieb Friedrich von Bohnenberger
Tübingen astronomer who built the first gimbal-mounted gyroscope in 1817.
Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier
Claimed any shape is a sum of sines. Was right. Broke mathematics.
Joseph von Fraunhofer
Bavarian glassmaker orphaned at 11 and apprenticed under brutal conditions; survived his workshop's 1801 roof collapse. Invented the diffraction grating and catalogued 574 dark lines in the solar spectrum — the Fraunhofer lines.
Joseph Henry
Self-taught American physicist who independently discovered electromagnetic induction and self-inductance, built the first practical electromagnets, and became the founding secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Joseph-Louis Lagrange
Rewrote mechanics without a single diagram and found the five points where gravity stands still.
Leonhard Euler
The most prolific mathematician in history, who wrote the equations of rigid-body rotation and half the notation used today.
Michael Faraday
Self-taught bookbinder's apprentice who became the greatest experimentalist of the 19th century and discovered the induction that runs every generator on Earth.
Pierre-Simon Laplace
Completed Newton's programme and derived the Earth's precession from first principles.
Robert Brown
Scottish botanist who saw pollen grains jitter under his microscope and named the motion that would prove atoms real.
Siméon Denis Poisson
Put angular momentum on a rigorous vector footing and codified how torque acts on it.
Thomas Young
Polymath who introduced the word energy to physics, in its modern sense.
Lazare Carnot
French mathematician, engineer, and revolutionary statesman — the 'Organiser of Victory' and father of Sadi Carnot.
Jacob Perkins
The engineer who patented the refrigerator ninety years before anyone wanted one.
§ 19th CENTURY · 78
David Hilbert
Göttingen mathematician who helped shape general relativity and championed Noether through institutional prejudice.
Elmer Ambrose Sperry
Inventor and industrialist who turned the laboratory gyroscope into the central navigation instrument of twentieth-century ships and aircraft.
Vesto Melvin Slipher
Measured the first galactic redshifts in 1912, a decade before Hubble's expansion law.
Albert Abraham Michelson
German-born American physicist, first US Nobel laureate in science (1907). With Edward Morley, used a precision interferometer in 1887 to measure Earth's motion through the luminiferous aether — and got a null result every time. The negative result they could not explain became Einstein's positive postulate twenty-four years later.
Edwin Hubble
The astronomer who proved the galaxies are receding and the universe is expanding.
Henrietta Swan Leavitt
Discoverer of the Cepheid period-luminosity law — the first rung of the cosmic distance ladder.
Georges Lemaître
The priest who proposed the Big Bang.
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin
British physicist who introduced the absolute temperature scale and helped found thermodynamics.
Albert Einstein
Redefined space, time, and gravity — and relied on Emmy Noether to sort out energy conservation in general relativity.
Aleksandr Lyapunov
Author of the 1892 doctoral thesis that invented modern stability theory and the exponent that now quantifies every chaotic system.
Alexander Friedmann
The meteorologist who set the universe in motion.
Arthur Holly Compton
American physicist, Nobel 1927. His 1923 X-ray-scattering experiment showed photons carry momentum p = h/λ and behave as particles in elastic collisions with electrons — completing the photon's mechanical legitimacy that Einstein's 1905 photoelectric paper had only hinted at. Later led the Manhattan Project's plutonium-production work at the Met Lab.
Arthur Eddington
The astrophysicist who measured the bending of starlight and made Einstein famous
August Krönig
German chemist whose short 1856 paper on molecular collisions helped revive the kinetic theory of gases.
Bernhard Riemann
German mathematician whose 1854 habilitation lecture *Über die Hypothesen welche der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen* generalised geometry to spaces of arbitrary dimension and intrinsic curvature, defining the metric and curvature tensors that fifty-eight years later became Einstein's mathematical language for general relativity.
Christian Doppler
Predicted in 1842 that moving sources would shift the frequency of the waves they emit.
Amalie Emmy Noether
Proved that every continuous symmetry of a physical system gives a conservation law — the most beautiful theorem in classical physics.
Ernst Mach
Photographed the shock cone of supersonic projectiles and gave the dimensionless number that bears his name.
Ernst Zermelo
Set theorist who axiomatised mathematics — and turned Poincaré's recurrence theorem against Boltzmann.
Felix Klein
Göttingen geometer who co-invited Noether and connected geometry to groups via the Erlangen program.
Fritz Zwicky
The combative visionary who coined 'dark matter' in 1933 and predicted neutron stars and supernovae.
George Gabriel Stokes
Worked out how slow-moving spheres disturb a fluid, and handed physics half of tribology and all of Brownian-motion analysis.
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
Königsberg-born physicist who, at twenty-one, formulated the node and loop laws of circuit analysis; later co-invented spectroscopy and wrote down the law of thermal radiation that Planck would quantise in 1900.
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
Dutch experimental virtuoso who first liquefied helium in 1908 and, three years later, discovered that mercury's electrical resistance vanishes below 4.2 K — the discovery of superconductivity.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
Karlsruhe physicist who in 1887–1888 built the first spark-gap transmitter and loop-antenna receiver and measured the radio waves Maxwell had predicted twenty-four years earlier. Died at thirty-six of Wegener's granulomatosis. The SI unit of frequency carries his name.
Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz
Baltic-German physicist working in St. Petersburg who formulated the sign rule of electromagnetic induction in 1834 and independently derived Joule's law of resistive heating.
Hendrik Antoon Lorentz
Dutch theoretical physicist who reformulated Maxwell's equations in terms of discrete electrons and wrote the transformations Einstein later promoted into the principle of relativity.
Henri Poincaré
Tried to solve the three-body problem, failed, and discovered chaos instead.
Hermann Minkowski
German mathematician who in 1907–1908 reformulated Einstein's special relativity as the geometry of a four-dimensional pseudo-Euclidean spacetime, giving electromagnetism its natural Lorentz-covariant home in the field tensor F^{μν}. Einstein's former teacher at ETH Zürich. Died at 44 of acute appendicitis in 1909, four years after publishing the geometry that would shape the rest of physics.
Hermann von Helmholtz
Army doctor turned founding father of physiological acoustics, energy conservation, and half of nineteenth-century physics.
Hermann Weyl
German mathematician whose 1918 attempt to unify gravity and electromagnetism by a length-rescaling 'gauge' (German Eichmaß) Einstein dismissed — and who in 1929 retooled the same idea as a phase rotation in the new quantum mechanics, where it worked. The U(1) gauge symmetry of QED is Weyl's, and the gauge principle behind every fundamental force traces to that 1929 retooling.
Armand-Hippolyte-Louis Fizeau
French physicist who switched from medicine to optics after a stutter ended his clinical ambitions. In 1849 made the first terrestrial measurement of the speed of light — a rotating toothed wheel on the Paris-to-Montmartre road.
James Clerk Maxwell
Scottish physicist who unified electricity and magnetism into four equations, derived the speed of light from electric and magnetic constants alone, and in doing so revealed that light is an electromagnetic wave.
James Prescott Joule
Proved by paddle wheel that mechanical work and heat are two forms of the same thing.
Jean Baptiste Perrin
French physicist whose painstaking measurements of Brownian motion ended the debate over whether atoms exist.
John Henry Poynting
English physicist who showed in 1884 that S = (1/μ₀)·E×B gives the direction and magnitude of energy flow in the electromagnetic field — closing the bookkeeping of Maxwell's theory and naming the vector that still underwrites every antenna, optical fibre, and solar cell.
John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh
The English aristocrat-physicist who gave sound and light their modern treatment and explained, almost in passing, why the sky is blue.
Josef Loschmidt
The Austrian who first sized the molecules of air — and posed the reversibility paradox to Boltzmann.
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
The deaf Russian schoolteacher who derived the rocket equation in 1903 and invented astronautics on paper.
Joseph Larmor
Cambridge mathematical physicist who in 1897 derived P = q²a²/(6πε₀c³), the foundational classical-radiation formula. Lucasian Professor 1903. His scalar-aether Aether and Matter (1900) came within an inch of special relativity, but he opposed Einstein's geometric version to the end.
Joseph Liouville
Proved that Hamiltonian flow preserves phase-space volume — the theorem underlying statistical mechanics.
Peter Debye
Dutch-American physical chemist whose model of lattice vibrations rescued the heat capacity of solids at low temperature.
Jules Antoine Lissajous
Pointed light at vibrating mirrors and drew the curves that bear his name.
Julius Robert von Mayer
German physician who deduced the conservation of energy from the colour of tropical blood, stating the first law a year before Joule's experiments — and was ignored for a decade.
Karl Schwarzschild
The astronomer who solved Einstein's equations exactly — from an artillery position on the Russian front.
Léon Foucault
Hung a pendulum in the Panthéon and made the Earth's rotation visible.
Lewis Fry Richardson
Quaker meteorologist who imagined the turbulent cascade — and tried to forecast the weather by hand.
Milutin Milanković
Serbian mathematician who turned the Earth's orbital wobbles into a quantitative theory of the ice ages.
Nikola Tesla
Harnessed alternating current and made resonance light up the world.
Oliver Heaviside
Self-taught English telegraph engineer who reduced Maxwell's twenty quaternion equations to the modern four vector equations, invented operational calculus, impedance, and the telegrapher's equations — all while living in deliberate poverty in Torquay.
Osborne Reynolds
Belfast-born engineer whose dye-in-a-pipe experiment defined the transition between laminar and turbulent flow.
Otto Stern
German-American physicist who turned molecular beams into precision instruments and measured molecular speeds directly.
Pierre Curie
French physicist who discovered piezoelectricity and the temperature limit of ferromagnetism, then with Marie Curie isolated radium and polonium.
Pierre Weiss
Alsatian physicist who invented the concept of magnetic domains and wrote the first mean-field theory in condensed-matter physics.
Seth Carlo Chandler Jr.
Boston actuary-astronomer who discovered in 1891 that the Earth's rotation axis wobbles with a 433-day period.
Tullio Levi-Civita
Italian mathematician whose 1900 collaboration with Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro produced the *absolute differential calculus* (now called tensor calculus), and whose 1917 introduction of the connection and parallel transport gave general relativity its modern geometric foundation.
Urbain Le Verrier
Found a new planet with pen and paper before anyone pointed a telescope at it.
Walther Meißner
German low-temperature physicist who, with Robert Ochsenfeld in 1933, discovered that superconductors actively expel magnetic flux — the defining property that makes superconductivity a phase of matter.
Wilhelm Ostwald
Founder of physical chemistry and leader of 'energetics' — the anti-atomist who finally conceded after Brownian motion.
William Rowan Hamilton
The Irish polymath who gave mechanics its deepest reformulation and named the group velocity in the same decade.
Christophe Hendrik Diederik Buys Ballot
Confirmed the Doppler effect in 1845 using trumpet players on a moving train.
Loránd (Roland) Eötvös
Hungarian physicist who built the torsion balance that constrained the difference between inertial and gravitational mass to a few parts in 10⁹ — the first high-precision laboratory test of the equivalence principle. His 1889 and 1922 (posthumous) measurements stood as the state of the art until lunar laser ranging in the 1970s.
Rudolf Clausius
German physicist who gave thermodynamics its formal structure, stated the second law, and coined the word entropy.
Max Planck
German physicist who sharpened the second law as a young thermodynamicist before founding quantum theory.
Ludwig Boltzmann
Austrian physicist who tied entropy to molecular probability and founded statistical mechanics.
Leó Szilárd
Hungarian-American physicist who tied information to entropy with his one-molecule engine and later conceived the nuclear chain reaction.
John B. Johnson
Bell Labs physicist who discovered the thermal voltage noise present in every resistor.
Marian Smoluchowski
Polish physicist who built the theory of Brownian motion and explained critical opalescence through density fluctuations.
J. Willard Gibbs
Reclusive Yale professor who founded chemical thermodynamics and gave statistical mechanics its name and its central tool, the partition function.
Harry Nyquist
Bell Labs theorist who derived thermal noise from thermodynamics and laid foundations for control theory and sampling.
Thomas Andrews
Belfast chemist who watched the boundary between liquid and gas dissolve, and named the critical point.
Ernst Ising
Solved a model in one dimension, concluded it had failed, and learned decades later that it had made him famous.
Wilhelm Lenz
Hamburg physicist who posed the model that carries his student's name.
Johannes Diderik van der Waals
Self-taught Dutch physicist whose thesis gave gases a size and an attraction, and predicted the critical point.
Thomas Midgley Jr.
The engineer who solved two problems perfectly and damaged the atmosphere twice.
James Dewar
Liquefied hydrogen, invented the vacuum flask, and lost it in court.
William Giauque
Broke the millikelvin barrier by cooling with disorder — and found the third law had a loophole.
Walther Nernst
Found the third law of thermodynamics while trying to predict chemical equilibria — and never liked what it implied.
§ 20th CENTURY · 37
Andrey Kolmogorov
The Soviet polymath who axiomatised probability and wrote the one law of turbulence we know.
David Bohm
American-British theoretical physicist whose 1952 pilot-wave interpretation of quantum mechanics offered a deterministic alternative to Copenhagen, and whose 1959 paper with Yakir Aharonov predicted the Aharonov-Bohm effect. Blacklisted from US academia during McCarthyism for refusing to testify; spent the rest of his life in São Paulo, Haifa, and London.
Robert Mills
American theoretical physicist whose 1954 collaboration with Chen-Ning Yang at Brookhaven produced the Yang-Mills paper — the generalisation of gauge theory to non-abelian groups, and the mathematical foundation of the Standard Model. Spent the rest of his career at Ohio State; the 1954 paper remained the work for which he was known.
Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.
Radio astronomer who turned a binary pulsar into the first proof that gravity radiates.
Arno Penzias
Co-discoverer of the cosmic microwave background — the leftover heat of the Big Bang.
Chen-Ning Yang
Chinese-American theoretical physicist whose 1954 paper with Robert Mills generalised gauge theory from the abelian U(1) of electromagnetism to non-abelian groups SU(N) — the template for the weak and strong nuclear forces and the mathematical backbone of the Standard Model. 1957 Nobel Prize (with T.D. Lee) for parity violation in the weak interaction.
Don N. Page
Hawking's student who turned the information paradox into a single, sharp curve.
Edward Mills Purcell
Nobel laureate for discovering nuclear magnetic resonance, later famous among fluid dynamicists for his 1977 lecture on life at low Reynolds number.
Irwin I. Shapiro
Radio astronomer who found a fourth classical test of general relativity in a radar echo.
Jacob Bekenstein
The graduate student who insisted a black hole has entropy — and was right.
John Archibald Wheeler
The American physicist who named the black hole and the wormhole — and made geometry the language of gravity
Jürgen Moser
The third initial of KAM, who proved that Kolmogorov's theorem survives when the Hamiltonian is merely smooth rather than analytic.
Kip Thorne
Theorist of gravitational waves, black holes, and the LIGO co-founder who made the case the waves could be caught.
Leonard Susskind
Father of string theory and the holographic principle; led the resistance in the black-hole war.
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac
Cambridge theoretical physicist who in 1928 wrote down the relativistic wave equation for the electron, predicted antimatter, and co-founded quantum electrodynamics. Shared the 1933 Nobel Prize with Schrödinger. The delta function, the Dirac sea, and bra-ket notation all carry his name.
Rainer Weiss
Inventor of the laser-interferometer gravitational-wave detector.
Richard Feynman
American theoretical physicist whose 1948–1949 path-integral and diagram formulations of quantum electrodynamics (with Schwinger and Tomonaga) won the 1965 Nobel Prize and recast every quantum-field calculation that has been done since. Manhattan Project veteran, Caltech professor for forty years, and author of the *Lectures on Physics* every undergraduate physicist still reads.
Roger Penrose
The mathematician who proved black holes are inevitable
Roy Kerr
Found the exact spacetime of every spinning black hole in a page and a half.
Russell Alan Hulse
Discovered the binary pulsar whose decaying orbit revealed gravitational waves.
Vera Rubin
The astronomer whose flat rotation curves made dark matter impossible to ignore.
Stephen Hawking
Proved that black holes are not black — they glow, and they evaporate.
Vladimir Arnold
Kolmogorov's student who wrote the full proof of the KAM theorem at age 26 and reshaped classical mechanics into differential geometry.
Yakir Aharonov
Israeli theoretical physicist who, with David Bohm in 1959, predicted the eponymous quantum effect: charged particles passing through field-free regions still acquire a measurable phase shift from the enclosed magnetic flux. The cleanest experimental demonstration that the electromagnetic potential — not just the field — is the real physical object.
Robert Pound and Glen Rebka
American physicists at Harvard whose 1960 experiment in the 22.5-meter Jefferson tower measured the gravitational redshift predicted by general relativity, using the recently-discovered Mössbauer effect to make a recoilless gamma-ray source sharp enough to resolve a frequency shift of Δν/ν ≈ 2.46 × 10⁻¹⁵.
Ryogo Kubo
Japanese physicist who gave the fluctuation–dissipation theorem its general form through linear-response theory.
Rolf Landauer
IBM physicist who proved that erasing a bit costs k_BT ln 2 and insisted that 'information is physical'.
Lev Landau
Soviet theorist who reframed phase transitions around symmetry, and wrote the course every physicist owns.
Charles Bennett
IBM physicist who resolved Maxwell's demon through erasure and co-founded quantum information theory.
Kenneth Wilson
American physicist who explained universality by making theories themselves flow under coarse-graining.
Lars Onsager
Norwegian chemist who solved the 2D Ising model exactly — and won his Nobel for something else entirely.
Mario Molina
The chemist who worked out that refrigerants were destroying the ozone layer — and spent a decade being told he was wrong.
F. Sherwood Rowland
The atmospheric chemist who asked what happens to Freon in the end, and was punished for the answer.
William Phillips
Slowed an atomic beam to a standstill, then measured a temperature that could not exist.
Steven Chu
Trapped atoms with light, then ran the US Department of Energy.
Claude Cohen-Tannoudji
Explained why laser cooling worked better than it was allowed to.
Linus Pauling
Counted the ways ice can be disordered on the back of an envelope, and got it right to within experimental error.